SUSTAINABLE TERMINOLOGY

15-minute cities

The concept of the “15-minute city” was developed primarily to reduce carbon emissions by reducing car use and motorized travel time within the city. It is a decentralized urban model, in which each local neighborhood contains all the basic functions for the life and work of residents. The concept of “15-minute cities” as an urban planning and design approach aims to create neighborhoods and urban areas where residents can access essential goods, services, and amenities within a 15-minute walk or bike ride from their homes. The idea is to promote livability, sustainability, and quality of life by reducing the need for long commutes, minimizing reliance on cars, and fostering vibrant, walkable communities.

In this context, disagreement often arises over whether the concept of creating local neighborhoods where residents can get everything they need within 15 minutes on foot, bike or public transport has indeed the potential to significantly improve the quality of life.

The concept of neighborhood was introduced as an orderly urban structural unit as early as the 1920s and has been understood since then both as part of a larger whole (the city) and as a separate entity in its own right. In this context, residential units are organically connected to functional cores to minimize the distances that can be covered by walking, while the central areas are characterized by mixed uses and varying densities within a few minutes’ walk.

Following this, the 15-minute model of cities can be considered complementary and as the evolution of the neighborhood idea by assim-

ilating new relevant concepts, such as that of cities with a slow pace of life. At the same time, the concept of 15-minute cities correlates with the concept of time-urbanism, which refers to the resilient, sustainable and inclusive city, in order for it to integrate the following indicative activities in its neighborhoods:

· Decentralization of basic services with flexible uses,

· development of social and functional mix,

· participation of citizens in urban planning processes,

· improvement of walking and cycling infrastructure.

15-minute cities promote mixed-use development, where residential, commercial, and recreational facilities are integrated within the same neighborhood or district. This allows residents to live, work, shop, and play in close proximity, reducing the need for long-distance travel. Furthermore, while walking and cycling are emphasized in 15-minute cities, public transit and alternative mobility options play important roles in providing connectivity beyond walking distance, such as efficient public transit networks, bike-sharing systems, and electric scooters.

The cities of the future are prioritizing urban infrastructure strategies that aim to bring all the elements of life and work to the level of local communities and to allow for the development of more green spaces within 15 minutes of all citizens, on foot or by bike. In the 15-minute cities parks, playgrounds, community gardens, and urban greenways provide opportunities for recreation, relaxation, and nature appreciation within walking distance of residential areas.

The key principles governing the design and operation of the 15-minute city concept are:

a) density, in the sense of optimal density allowing sustainability goals to be achieved across economic, social and environmental borders;

b) proximity;

c) diversity; and

d) digitalization.

Among other things, the main advantage of 15-minute cities is that they offer convenience and quality of life, but not isolation. A “full neighborhood” gives people personal time back by reducing the frequency and duration of unwanted trips, but physical and digital connectivity must be at the heart of any 15-minute strategic city, prioritizing equal access to social and economic opportunities.

Digital infrastructure, including high-speed internet access and mobile connectivity, enables residents to access information, services, and resources remotely, such as remote work, e-commerce, telemedicine, and virtual education, thus reducing the need for physical travel to access certain services and amenities. Digitalization also enables the development of smart mobility solutions such as ride-sharing apps, on-demand public transit services, and mobility-as-a-service (MaaS) platforms.

Overall, it seems that progress in the development of smart applications of a city and the provision of fully updated information to citizens help shape these new forms of cities, at the same time that the evolution of each city itself constantly requires the development and

availability of new such means in order for it to meet the ever-evolving standards of safety, health and inclusion.

2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

It is Action Plan for the People, the Planet and Prosperity, adopted at the 70th United Nations General Assembly (of 193 member states) in September 2015. It essentially includes 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 associated sub-goals, giving a new dimension to global efforts to achieve sustainable development and which aim to eradicate poverty, protect the planet, and ensure prosperity for all. These goals cover a wide range of areas, including poverty eradication, gender equality, climate action, and sustainable cities and communities.

One of the key principles of the 2030 Agenda is the idea of leaving no one behind. This means that the goals are designed to be inclusive and to ensure that the benefits of development are shared by all members of society, particularly the most vulnerable and marginalized populations. This commitment to equity and social justice is a fundamental aspect of the agenda and underscores the importance of addressing systemic inequalities in order to achieve sustainable development.

Another important aspect of the 2030 Agenda is its emphasis on the interconnected nature of sustainable development, as it promotes the integration of all three dimensions of sustainable development – social, environmental and economic – into all sectoral policies, while promoting the interconnection and coherence of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) policy and legislative frameworks.

The goals are designed to be holistic and integrated, recognizing that progress in one area can have positive or negative impacts on others. This approach reflects a recognition of the complex and interdependent challenges facing the global community and the need for coordinated and collaborative action to address them effectively.

Achieving the SDGs will require the active participation and cooperation of all sectors of society, including governments, civil society, the private sector, and individuals. This multi-stakeholder approach is essential for mobilizing resources, sharing knowledge and expertise, and building political will to drive progress towards the goals. It also reflects the recognition that sustainable development is a shared responsibility that requires collective action to enact meaningful change.

2040 climate target

The EU and its Member States have committed in the EU Climate Law to make the EU the first climate neutral continent by 2050. According to recital 30 and Art. 4 of the EU Climate Law, in order to provide predictability and confidence for all economic actors, including businesses, workers, investors and consumers, to ensure a gradual reduction of greenhouse gas emissions over time and that the transition towards climate neutrality is irreversible, the Commission should propose a Union intermediate climate target for 2040, as appropriate, at the latest within six months of the first global stocktake carried out under the Paris Agreement, as referred to in Article 14 of the Agreement.

When making its legislative proposal for the Union 2040 climate target, the Commission shall, at the same time, publish in a separate report the projected indicative Union greenhouse gas budget for the 2030-2050 period, defined as the indicative total volume of net greenhouse gas emissions (expressed as CO2 equivalent and providing separate information on emissions and removals) that are expected to be emitted in that period without putting at risk the Union’s commitments under the Paris Agreement.

According to para 5 of Art. 4 of the Law, when proposing the Union 2040 climate target, the Commission shall consider, inter alia:

a) the best available and most recent scientific evidence,

b) the social, economic and environmental impacts, including the costs of inaction;

c) the need to ensure a just and socially fair transition for all;

d) cost-effectiveness and economic efficiency;

e) the need to maintain, manage and enhance natural sinks in the long term and protect and restore biodiversity;

f) investment needs and opportunities, and more.

In February 2024, the Commission published a Communication for a 2040 climate target for the EU, in which recommended reducing the EU’s net greenhouse gas emissions by 90% by 2040 relative to 1990. The Commission’s proposal follows a public consultation which took place from 31 March to 23 June 2023, in which citizens and stakeholders were invited to share their views on the EU’s climate target for 2040. The recommended 2040 climate target is based on the Commission’s detailed impact assessment

and the advice of the European Scientific Advisory Board on Climate Change.

Following the June 2024 European Elections, a political debate will be opened on the choices for European citizens and governments on the way forward.

Aarhus Convention

The Aarhus Convention, formally known as the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, is an international treaty that aims to promote transparency, public participation, and access to justice in environmental decision-making processes.

The international convention signed on 25 June 1998 in Aarhus, Denmark, by thirty-five States, including Greece, enshrines specific rights in the field of the environment, in particular the rights to:

a)access to information on the environment held by public authorities: this includes information on environmental policies, plans, programs, and projects, as well as data on environmental quality, emissions, and impacts. Member states are required to ensure that environmental information is readily available, easily accessible, and understandable to the public.

b)participation in decision-making processes relating to these matters: the Convention requires member states to provide opportunities for the public to participate in the development, implementation, and review of environmental laws, policies, and projects that may affect the environment (including public consultation, public hearings, and the involvement of stakeholders in decision-making processes).

c)judicial protection in case of violation of the above two rights: it guarantees the right of individuals and groups to seek judicial or administrative review of decisions that affect their environmental rights and interests in the form of access to effective remedies and procedures, including legal standing, access to courts or administrative bodies, and the right to challenge decisions that violate environmental laws or regulations.

This international Convention was ratified by Greece in December 2005 with Law 3422/2005 (Government Gazette A’ 303) and, therefore, constitutes binding Law in the country and, is indeed, of superior force compared to ordinary national Laws.

The preamble to the Convention states that “in the field of the environment, wider access to information and public participation in decision-making improves the quality and implementation of decisions, contributes to public awareness of environmental issues, gives the public the opportunity to express its concerns and allows public authorities to take due account of those concerns.”

The innovative element introduced by this Convention is the ex officio obligation of the competent authorities to disseminate the necessary environmental information and the right to legal redress in case of refusal to provide information. To be effective, such public participation should take place at an early stage, when all options (objection, negotiation, proposals for possible modifications) are still possible, and for it to be genuine, the effect of public participation must be duly taken into account by public authorities (Article 6.8.)

The Aarhus Convention not only expands the geographical area in which the above rights are guaranteed by extending it to those of the contracting countries that are not members of the European Union, but which specify and ultimately significantly strengthen the enjoyment of these rights, while at the same time establishing procedural guarantees to ensure the possibility of their effective exercise.

In order to assess the Convention’s actual enforcement per signatory States, it establishes a compliance mechanism to review member states’ compliance with their obligations under the Convention by conducting assessments, responding to complaints from the public, and providing recommendations for improving implementation and compliance.

It has had a significant impact on environmental governance in the countries that have ratified it by increasing transparency and accountability in decision-making processes, empowering citizens to participate in environmental decision-making, and improving access to justice for individuals and groups seeking to challenge environmental decisions.

Overall, the Aarhus Convention represents a significant international effort to strengthen environmental democracy, enhance public participation in environmental decision-making, and ensure access to justice in environmental matters. It underscores the importance of transparency, accountability, and public engagement in promoting environmental protection and sustainable development.

Adaptation

The process of adaptation to the actual or expected climate and its impacts. In human systems, adaptation seeks to mitigate or avoid harm. In some natural systems, human intervention can facilitate adaptation to the expected climate and its impacts. Essentially, it refers to the process of adjusting to the current and future impacts of climate change in order to minimize vulnerability, build resilience, and protect communities, ecosystems, and economies. Unlike mitigation, which focuses on reducing greenhouse gas emissions to limit the extent of climate change, adaptation strategies aim to manage the unavoidable effects of climate change that are already occurring or projected to occur in the future; and, together with mitigation, they are the two pillars of tackling the effects of climate change.

In practice, climate adaptation involves building resilience to climate-related risks and shocks by enhancing the capacity of communities, ecosystems, and infrastructure to withstand, recover from, and adapt to adverse impacts; this may include strengthening physical infrastructure, improving early warning systems, preserving natural habitats, and generally building resilience such as climate-resilient infrastructure.

Bioclimatic design/bioclimatic architecture

Key contemporary issues such as climate change, the waste of natural resources and the degradation of the natural and man-made environment are directly related to the construction and operation of buildings throughout their life cycle. Bioclimatic design, also known as bioclimatic architecture, is an innovative approach to sustainable building design that takes into account the local climate and environmental conditions to create comfortable living spaces while reducing energy consumption and minimizing environmental impact. This design philosophy emphasizes the use of natural resources such as sunlight, wind, and vegetation to regulate indoor temperatures and improve overall building performance.

The approach of bioclimatic design aims to redirect the design principles of the built environment towards sustainable solutions, which include the exploitation of local specificities and climatic conditions, the proper management of natural resources, the contribution of renewable energy sources and the adoption of techniques and materials that do not harm the environment or human health.

One of the key principles of bioclimatic design is passive solar heating, which involves strategically positioning windows, walls, and thermal mass to maximise the amount of natural light and heat entering a building; by harnessing the power of the sun, bioclimatic buildings can reduce the need for artificial heating and cooling systems, thus lowering energy costs and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. In addition to passive solar heating, bioclimatic design also focuses on natural ventilation and shading techniques (operable windows, sunshades, green roofs) in order to effectively regulate indoor temperatures and improve air quality. Another important aspect is the use of sustainable materials and construction methods to minimise the en-

vironmental impact of building projects by incorporating renewable materials such as bamboo, straw, and recycled wood, along with the incorporation of green spaces, rooftop gardens, and wildlife habitats into building designs towards the promotion of biodiversity conservation in urban areas.

In Greece, the concept of bioclimatic design is defined as the architectural design of a building that takes into account topographic characteristics and local climatic data (terrain, orientation, solar radiation, wind, temperature, relative humidity, rain, etc.) in such a way as to limit the impact of their impact on the building and on the other hand to utilize them in achieving thermal comfort and healthy living conditions inside.

According to the New Building Regulation (Law 4067/2012, Government Gazette A’ 79/09.04.2012), bioclimatic design of a building is the “appropriate design of the building, aiming at the optimal exploitation of natural and climatic conditions through the use of mainly passive systems, in order to achieve optimal indoor conditions of thermal comfort, air quality and natural light throughout the year with the minimum possible energy consumption”.

Correspondingly, a bioclimatic building is “the building, whose design responds to the climatic conditions of its environment, through the use of mainly passive systems, in such a way as to achieve optimal indoor conditions of thermal comfort, air quality and natural light throughout the year, with the minimum possible energy consumption and is classified in the upper energy categories, as defined each time”.

Biodiversity

The diversity of living organisms of all origins, including, inter alia, the terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and ecological complexes of which they are part. It also includes diversity within

species, between species and ecosystems. Biological diversity includes the diversity of genes within and between species. Nowadays there is a decline in biodiversity on the planet, which is due to a number of causes such as environmental pollution, forest destruction, desertification of soils and water pollution. According to Article 18 of Law 1650/86 as in force, biodiversity, nature and the landscape shall be protected and preserved in order to safeguard natural processes, the efficiency of natural resources, the balance and evolution of ecosystems, and the diversity, specificity or uniqueness of their components. Important species of native flora, including wild species and species related to cultivated species, wildlife, indigenous breeds of farm animals and other groups of organisms are also objects of protection and conservation.

Indeed, terrestrial, wetland, marine or mixed areas, individual elements or ensembles of nature and landscape can be objects of protection and conservation due to their ecological, biological, geological, geomorphological, generally scientific or aesthetic importance, thus falling under the concept of “protected areas”.

Biodiversity Strategy 2030

The European Union’s Biodiversity Strategy 2030 is a comprehensive and ambitious plan that aims to halt and reverse biodiversity loss by the end of the decade. This strategy builds upon the previous EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2020, which set out a series of targets and actions to protect and restore biodiversity in the EU. With the cur-

rent rate of biodiversity loss threatening ecosystems and the services they provide to human societies; the EU has recognized the urgent need to take action to preserve and restore biodiversity.

The strategy, as part of the European Green Deal, includes concrete commitments and actions to be delivered by 2030:

a) creating a wider network of protected areas at EU level on land and sea, with strict protection for areas of very high biodiversity and climate value;

b) launch an EU nature restoration plan through concrete commitments and actions, addressing the key drivers of biodiversity loss. This includes setting targets for expanding protected areas, restoring degraded ecosystems, and safeguarding vulnerable species and habitats. The Strategy sets ambitious targets to halt biodiversity loss and restore ecosystems in the EU by 2030. These targets include protecting at least 30% of land and sea areas, restoring degraded ecosystems, and ensuring that 10% of agricultural land is under high-diversity landscape features;

c) promote the sustainable use of natural resources; this includes measures to promote sustainable agriculture, forestry, and fisheries practices that minimize the impact on biodiversity;

d) promote of green infrastructure and the restoration of degraded ecosystems. Green infrastructure refers to networks of natural and semi-natural areas that provide a range of ecosystem services, such as flood protection, pollination, and carbon sequestration, in order to enhance ecosystem resilience and improve connectivity between habitats;

e) adopting measures to enable the necessary transformative change in place of a new, strengthened governance framework to ensure better implementation and monitoring of progress, improved knowledge, financing and investment and enhanced respect for nature in public and business decision-making, and;

f) adopting measures to address the global biodiversity challenge, with the aim of demonstrating that the EU is ready to lead by example in tackling the global biodiversity crisis in particular, through its efforts to successfully adopt an ambitious global biodiversity framework under the UN Convention on Biological Diversity.

Biofuels

Biofuels are a type of renewable energy source that is derived from organic materials such as plants and animal waste. These fuels are being increasingly used as an alternative to traditional fossil fuels like oil and coal, helping to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve security of supply. More specifically, they are liquid or gaseous transport fuels, such as biodiesel and bioethanol, made from biomass.

The communication of the EU Commission of 20 July 2016 entitled “A European Strategy for Low-Emission Mobility”, highlighted the particular importance, in the medium term, of advanced biofuels and renewable liquid and gaseous fuels of non-biological origin for aviation.

One of the main advantages of biofuels is that they are considered carbon-neutral, meaning that the carbon dioxide emitted when they are burned is roughly equal to the amount that was absorbed by the plants during their growth. This contrasts with fossil fuels, which release carbon that has been sequestered deep underground for millions of years, causing a net increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide levels.

Since the start of 2024, the EU Commission’s Union Database for Biofuels (UDB) is open for online registration by the relevant economic operators of transactions of liquid renewable and recycled carbon fuels, as it was provided for in Article 31a of the 2018 Renewable En-

ergy Directive in order to improve traceability of biofuels, avoid double counting, and address concerns about fraud.

According to the Directive, in order to prepare for the transition towards advanced biofuels and to minimise the overall direct and indirect land-use change impacts, it is appropriate to limit the amount of biofuels and bioliquids produced from cereal and other starch-rich crops, without restricting the overall possibility of using such biofuels and bioliquids. The establishment of a limit at Union level should not prevent Member States from providing for lower limits to the amount of biofuels and bioliquids produced from cereal and other starch-rich crops, sugars and oil crops that can be counted at national level towards the targets laid down in this Directive, without restricting the overall possibility of using such biofuels and bioliquids.

Advanced biofuels and other biofuels and biogas produced from feedstock, renewable liquid and gaseous transport fuels of non-biological origin, and renewable electricity in the transport sector can contribute to low carbon emissions, stimulating the decarbonization of the transport sector in a cost-effective manner, and improving, inter alia, energy diversification in the transport sector while promoting innovation, growth and jobs in the Union economy and reducing reliance on energy imports (EU Renewable Energy Directive recital nr. 85).

While biofuels are important in helping the EU meet its greenhouse gas reduction targets, biofuel production typically takes place on cropland that was previously used for agriculture, to grow food or feed. Since this agricultural production is still necessary, biofuel production may lead to the extension of agricultural land into non-crop land, possibly including areas with high carbon stock, such as forests, wetlands and peatlands. This process is known as indirect land use change (ILUC). To address the issue of ILUC, the revised Renewable Energy Directive introduces a new approach by setting limits on

high ILUC-risk biofuels, bioliquids and biomass fuels with a significant expansion in land with high carbon stock.

For the implementation of this approach, as required by the Directive, the Commission adopted the Delegated Regulation on indirect land-use change ((EU) 2019/807), in which it lays down provisions to determine the high ILUC-risk feedstock for which a significant expansion of the production area into land with high carbon stock is observed. It also sets out criteria to certify low ILUC-risk biofuels, bioliquids and biomass fuels.

Bioplastics

Bioplastics are a rapidly growing area of interest in the field of materials science, as society becomes increasingly aware of the negative environmental impacts of traditional plastics. They are a type of plastic that is derived from renewable biomass sources, such as corn starch, sugarcane, or vegetable oils. These materials are biodegradable or compostable, making them a more sustainable alternative to traditional petroleum-based plastics.

There are several types of bioplastics, including polylactic acid (PLA), polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), and starch-based plastics. PLA is commonly used in disposable tableware and packaging, while PHAs are more versatile and can be used in various applications. Starch-based plastics are also popular and can be found in products such as shopping bags and packaging materials.

One of the key advantages of bioplastics is their biodegradability and compostability. Traditional plastics can take hundreds of years to degrade, while bioplastics can break down much more quickly, reducing their impact on the environment. Additionally, bioplastics have a lower carbon footprint than traditional plastics, as they are derived from renewable resources.

In 2022, the European Commission adopted a policy framework on the sourcing, labelling and use of biobased plastics, and the use of biodegradable and compostable plastics. The policy framework was announced in the European Green Deal, Circular Economy Action Plan, and Plastics Strategy with the aim to contribute to a sustainable plastics economy.

However, as also mentioned by the Commission, bioplastics also have some disadvantages, as they can be more expensive to produce than traditional plastics, which has limited their widespread adoption. Additionally, their biodegradability can vary depending on the specific material and conditions in which they are disposed of.

In conclusion, bioplastics are a promising alternative to traditional plastics, offering a more sustainable and environmentally friendly option. While there are still challenges to overcome in terms of cost and biodegradability, ongoing research and development in the field of bioplastics are likely to lead to continued advancements and innovation. As society becomes increasingly aware of the need for more sustainable materials, bioplastics are likely to play a key role in the future of materials science and environmental sustainability.